Saved copy of
Harris v. Hoskins, SC101806
Supreme Court of Missouri (Justia copy) · 2026-09-03
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html xml:lang="en" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# website: http://ogp.me/ns/website#">
<title> Harris vs. Hoskins :: 2026 :: Supreme Court of Missouri Decisions :: Missouri Case Law :: Missouri Law :: U.S. Law :: Justia </title>
<meta name="description" content="Petition supporters submitted an initiative petition proposing to amend the Missouri Constitution, having followed the statutory process for approval and certification of the ballot title by the Secretary of State. After signature gathering and timely submission, the Secretary of State was required to determine the petition’s compliance with the Missouri Constitution and Missouri statutes and to issue a certificate of sufficiency or insufficiency. Instead, shortly before the deadline, the Secretary issued a certificate declaring the petition insufficient without specifying any constitutional defects, vacated the original ballot title, and issued a new ballot title." />
<meta name="page-type" content="Law: Cases: Opinion (PDF) (with Summary)" />
<meta name="robots" content="index, follow" />
<meta name="referrer" content="unsafe-url" />
<meta name="trigger-ga" content="1" />
<meta name="keywords" content="Supreme Court of Missouri Cases, Opinions, Decisions" />
<meta name="is-li" content="0" />
<meta property="og:title" content="Harris vs. Hoskins, SC101806 (Mo. 2026)" />
<meta property="og:description" content="Petition supporters submitted an initiative petition proposing to amend the Missouri Constitution, having followed the statutory process for approval and certification of the ballot title by the Secretary of State. After signature gathering and timely submission, the Secretary of State was required to determine the petition’s compliance with the Missouri Constitution and Missouri statutes and to issue a certificate of sufficiency or insufficiency. Instead, shortly before the deadline, the Secretary issued a certificate declaring the petition insufficient without specifying any constitutional defects, vacated the original ballot title, and issued a new ballot title." />
<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
<meta property="og:site_name" content="Justia Law" />
<meta property="og:image" content="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/social-media/law.jpg" />
<meta property="og:admins" content="656268335,686786921,25900864" />
<meta property="og:app_id" content="119529808075661" />
<meta property="og:url" content="https://law.justia.com/cases/missouri/supreme-court/2026/sc101806.html" />
<meta property="twitter:card" content="summary" />
<meta property="twitter:site" content="@JustiaCom" />
<link rel="canonical" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/missouri/supreme-court/2026/sc101806.html" />
<link href="https://company.justia.com" rel="publisher" />
<!-- Google Tag Manager -->
<script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':
new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],
j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src=
'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);
})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-P2QTGCR');</script>
<!-- End Google Tag Manager -->
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<script>window.jshides = [];</script>
<link rel="icon" type="image/svg+xml" href="https://justatic.com/v/1/branding/favicons/button.svg" />
<link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="48x48" href="https://justatic.com/v/1/branding/favicons/button-48.png" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://justatic.com/v/1/branding/favicons/button-180.png" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://justatic.com/v/1/branding/favicons/favicon.ico" />
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="all" href="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/css/core.css" />
<style>.grecaptcha-badge{visibility:hidden;height:0!important;}</style>
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://connect.justia.com" crossorigin="use-credentials"/>
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://justatic.com"/>
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com"/>
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.google-analytics.com"/>
</head>
<body class="state content-right-sidebar cases portal content-right-sidebar sticky-footer" data-project="law" data-directive="j-gdpr" data-privacy-policy-url="https://www.justia.com/privacy-policy/">
<!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->
<noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-P2QTGCR"
height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript>
<!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->
<header data-directive="j-topnav" id="header" >
<div id="sticky-nav">
<div class="burger-wrapper">
<div id="hamburger" data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header" data-gtm-label="Hamburger" class="hamburger">
<div class="inner-ham" style="pointer-events:none" class="hamburger">
<span class="lns ln2-1" style="pointer-events:none"></span>
<span class="lns ln2-2" style="pointer-events:none"></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-nav">
<div class="inner-wrapper">
<div class="logo-wrapper">
<a href="/" title="Justia" class="logo">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header" data-gtm-label="Logo" src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/branding/logos/sites/justia.svg" alt="Justia">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header" data-gtm-label="Logo - Subdomain" class="sub-domain" src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/branding/logos/sites/law.svg" alt="Case Law"/>
</a>
</div>
<div class="buttons-wrapper">
<div class="topnav-button search-icon" id="search-icon-button">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/white/search.svg" alt="search" width="22" height="22"/>
</div>
<div class="topnav-button sign-in-icon" id="sign-in-icon-button">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/white/profile.svg" alt="My Account" width="20" height="20">
</div>
<div id="accounts-buttons-wrapper">
<span class="topnav-button login-buttons" id="login-buttons-wrapper">
<span class="login-buttons-wrapper">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Account" data-gtm-label="Log In" data-directive="j-login" rel="nofollow" href="https://accounts.justia.com/signin?destination=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.justia.com%2Fcases%2Fmissouri%2Fsupreme-court%2F2026%2Fsc101806.html" class="login">Log In</a>
<a rel="nofollow" href="https://accounts.justia.com/" class="sign-up">Sign Up</a>
</span>
</span>
</div>
<div id="search-form-wrapper">
<form action="https://law.justia.com/lawsearch/redirect-from-header" method="get" class="search-form jform" id="search-form">
<div class="input-wrapper">
<input type="text" name="query" value="" id="querybox" title="Search" placeholder="Search">
</div>
<button type="submit">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/search.svg" alt="search" width="22" height="22"/>
</button>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="subnavigation">
<div class="subnavigation-wrapper">
<ul>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Find a Lawyer" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers">Find a Lawyer</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Ask a Lawyer" href="https://answers.justia.com/">Ask a Lawyer </a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Research the Law" href="https://www.justia.com/">Research the Law</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Law Schools" href="https://www.justia.com/law-schools/">Law Schools</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Laws & Regs" href="https://law.justia.com/">Laws & Regs</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Newsletters" href="https://connect.justia.com/case-law-summary-newsletters">Newsletters</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Marketing Solutions" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/">Marketing Solutions</a>
<div class="sublist">
<div class="sublist-section">
<ul>
<li class="sublist-section-title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Justia Connect" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/connect/">Justia Connect</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Pro Membership" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/connect/#pro-membership">Pro Membership</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Practice Membership" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/connect/#practice-membership">Practice Membership</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Public Membership" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/connect/#public-membership">Public Membership</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sublist-section">
<ul>
<li class="sublist-section-title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Justia Lawyer Directory" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/lawyer-directory/">Justia Lawyer Directory</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Platinum Placements" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/lawyer-directory/platinum/">Platinum Placements</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Gold Placements" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/lawyer-directory/gold/">Gold Placements</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sublist-section">
<ul>
<li class="sublist-section-title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Justia Elevate" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/elevate/">Justia Elevate</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="SEO" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/elevate/search-engine-optimization/">SEO</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Websites & LSA Management" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/elevate/law-firm-websites/">Websites</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Blogs" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/elevate/law-blogs/">Blogs</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sublist-section">
<ul>
<li class="sublist-section-title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Justia Amplify" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/amplify/">Justia Amplify</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="PPC Management" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/amplify/cpc-ppc/">PPC Management</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Google Business Profile" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/amplify/google-business-profile/">Google Business Profile</a>
</li>
<li>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Social Media" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/amplify/social-media-networking/">Social Media</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="sublist-section">
<ul>
<li class="sublist-section-title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Header Navigation" data-gtm-label="Justia Onward Blog" href="https://onward.justia.com/">Justia Onward Blog</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</header>
<div class="has-topnav-padding font-opensans" data-directive="j-announcement" data-project="law"></div>
<div id="main-content" class="main-content font-opensans">
<nav class="breadcrumbs font-helvetica small-font">
<a href="//www.justia.com/">Justia</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
<a href="/">U.S. Law</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
<a href="/cases/">Case Law</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
<a href="/cases/missouri/">Missouri Case Law</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
<a href="/cases/missouri/supreme-court/">Supreme Court of Missouri Decisions</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
<a href="/cases/missouri/supreme-court/2026/">2026</a>
<span class="breadcrumb-sep"> › </span>
Harris vs. Hoskins
</nav>
<div class="primary-content-wrapper">
<div class="primary-content">
<div class="wrapper jcard has-padding-30 blocks">
<div id="subscriptions-notification"></div>
<div class="grid-wrapper--20 tst-01">
<span class="col--three-fourths"><h1 class="heading-1 -min-size">Harris vs. Hoskins, SC101806 (Mo. 2026)</h1></span>
</div>
<div class="clear-both"></div>
<div class="metadata-card has-padding-full-25 has-margin-bottom-30">
<div class="has-margin-bottom-15">
<span><strong>Court: </strong>Supreme Court of Missouri</span>
</div>
<div class="has-margin-bottom-15">
<span><strong>Docket Number: </strong>SC101806</span>
</div>
<div>
<span><strong>Date Decided: </strong>September 3, 2026</span>
</div>
</div>
<div class="bg-wild-sand has-padding-full-25 block has-no-top-margin">
<a class="heading-4 has-no-margin width-fit-content" href="https://connect.justia.com/case-law-summary-newsletters">Justia Opinion Summary</a>
<div class="has-margin-top-15 has-margin-bottom-15 text-diminished -collapsed" id="diminished-text">
<p>
Petition supporters submitted an initiative petition proposing to amend the Missouri Constitution, having followed the statutory process for approval and certification of the ballot title by the Secretary of State. After signature gathering and timely submission, the Secretary of State was required to determine the petition’s compliance with the Missouri Constitution and Missouri statutes and to issue a certificate of sufficiency or insufficiency. Instead, shortly before the deadline, the Secretary issued a certificate declaring the petition insufficient without specifying any constitutional defects, vacated the original ballot title, and issued a new ballot title.<br />
<br />
The petition supporters, all qualified Missouri voters, challenged the Secretary’s actions in the Cole County Circuit Court, seeking reversal of the insufficiency certification and reinstatement of the original ballot title. The circuit court upheld the Secretary’s decision. The petition supporters appealed, and due to the importance of the legal issues, the Supreme Court of Missouri en banc took discretionary jurisdiction.<br />
<br />
The Supreme Court of Missouri en banc found that the Secretary failed to comply with statutory requirements by not stating any reasons for insufficiency in his certificate, thus preserving nothing for appellate review. The Court further held that hypothetical constitutional violations, which might arise only if the amendment were adopted, are not ripe for pre-election review. The Court rejected the Secretary’s claims regarding single-article and single-subject violations as meritless and determined he lacked authority to vacate the certified ballot title and issue a new one. The Court reversed the circuit court’s judgment, ordered the Secretary to issue a certificate of sufficiency for the initiative petition, to place it on the November 2026 ballot with the original ballot title, and to take all necessary steps to ensure its inclusion before September 8, 2026.
</p>
</div>
<div class="-display-flex align-right">
<a href="javascript:void(0)" id="summary-read-more" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="diminished-text" data-collapsed_class="-collapsed" data-expanded_class="-expanded" data-collapsed_text="<span></span>Read more" data-expanded_text="<span></span>Collapse Summary">Read more</a>
</div>
<strong class="heading-6 has-margin-top-30 hidden" data-subscribed="0">
Want to stay in the know about new opinions from the Supreme Court of Missouri? </br>
Sign up for free summaries delivered directly to your inbox. <a href="https://connect.justia.com/case-law-summary-newsletters" target="_blank">Learn More ›</a>
</strong>
<strong class="heading-6 has-margin-top-30 hidden" data-subscribed="1">
You already receive new opinion summaries from Supreme Court of Missouri. Did you know we offer summary newsletters for even more practice areas and jurisdictions? Explore them <a href="https://connect.justia.com/case-law-summary-newsletters" target="_blank">here</a>.
</strong>
</div>
<div class="tab-content has-no-border">
<div class="block" id="opinion">
<a href="//cases.justia.com/missouri/supreme-court/2026-sc101806.pdf?ts=1788485424" target="_blank" class="pull-right has-margin-bottom-20 button button-ghost button-large" data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Content" data-gtm-label="Law - Download PDF (Cases)"><span class="jicon jicon-download blue"></span><span class="has-margin-left-10">Download PDF</span></a>
<div class="clear-both"></div>
<iframe class="pdf-iframe" seamless src="//cases.justia.com/static/pdf-js/web/?file=%2Fmissouri%2Fsupreme-court%2F2026-sc101806.pdf%3Fts%3D1788485424" allowfullscreen webkitallowfullscreen></iframe>
<noframes>
Supreme Court of Missouri en banc SC101806 Claire Harris, et al., Opinion issued September 3, 2026 Appellants, v. Denny Hoskins, in His Official Capacity as the Missouri Secretary of State, Respondent. Appeal from the Cole County Circuit Court The Honorable Daniel R. Green, Judge Overview This case shares similarities with Von Glahn v. Hoskins, No. SC101805, __ S.W.3d __ (Mo. banc Sep. 3, 2026). About one hour before the statutory deadline of 5:00 p.m. on August 4, 2026, Missouri Secretary of State Denny Hoskins held a press conference and issued a “Certificate of Insufficiency of Petition” for Initiative Petition 2026-106. In this case, the secretary found “the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution[.]” The secretary directed the petition should not be placed on the November 2026 ballot. In his certificate, the secretary also vacated the petition’s ballot title and issued a new ballot title. Because his certificate fails to identify any reason the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution, it does not comply with section 116.150.2 and preserves nothing for this Court’s review. 1 Even if the secretary had preserved his claims, nearly all assert constitutional violations that may or will occur if the petition is approved. These hypothetical claims are not ripe for review. The two pre-election claims—violation of the single-article and single-subject requirements in article III, section 50—lack merit. Finally, the secretary lacks statutory authority to revoke his approval of the ballot title and issue another. This Court reverses the circuit court’s judgment. Pursuant to Rule 84.14, this Court enters judgment ordering the secretary to issue a certificate of sufficiency as to Initiative Petition 2026106 (attaching a copy of this opinion thereto), to place the initiative petition on the November 2026 general election ballot with the original ballot title certified in September 2025, and to take any and all additional steps necessary to place the initiative petition on the ballot at that election before September 8, 2026. Factual Background and Procedural History The circuit court held a bench trial on the following joint stipulated facts and exhibits. On July 18, 2025, Jamie Howard submitted a sample sheet for an initiative petition (2026-106) to the secretary. On July 31, the Missouri Attorney General notified the secretary of the attorney general’s approval of the form of the petition. The same day, the secretary sent Howard a letter providing notice of “final approval to the form of your petition … following the Attorney General’s approval.” The letter also provided: Following the Attorney General’s review of the fiscal note, fiscal note summary and summary statement of the measure, our office will certify the official ballot 1 All statutory references are to RSMo 2016, and all rule references are to Missouri Court Rules (2026). 2 title and forward a copy to you. At that time you may begin circulation of the petition with the official ballot title affixed to each petition page. On September 9, the secretary certified the ballot title for the petition. The secretary’s letter to Howard provided: Please be advised that the Secretary of State, pursuant to Section 116.180, RSMo, has certified the official ballot title for the initiative petition you submitted on July 18, 2025. The ballot language is as follows: Shall the Missouri Constitution be amended to: • expand the initiative and referendum petition process by making it a fundamental right; • allow courts to revise ballot summaries through lawsuits; • prohibit the legislature from weakening initiative or referendum powers; • prohibit the legislature from changing or repealing laws enacted through the initiative process, or passing laws similar to those rejected by referendum, without approval from at least 80% of both chambers; and • preserve existing majority vote and signature requirements for initiative and referendum petitions? State and local governmental entities estimate no costs or savings. The approval of this ballot title follows review by the Attorney General of the summary statement submitted by this office and the fiscal note summary statement prepared by the State Auditor. Following the secretary’s certification of the official ballot title, petition supporters circulated the petition and gathered signatures using the certified ballot title. On May 3, 2026, petition supporters submitted to the secretary 69,757 pages purporting to contain more than 300,000 signatures in support of the petition. The May 3 filing triggered several obligations of the secretary. First, the secretary had to “examine the petition to determine whether it complies with the Constitution of Missouri and with this chapter [116].” Sec. 116.120.1. Second, the secretary had to issue a certificate of sufficiency or insufficiency as to the petition within the statutory timeframe. Sec. 116.150.1-.3. There is no dispute the secretary could have issued his certificate any time after the May 3 filing but had to issue it by August 4 at 5:00 p.m. At about 4:00 p.m. on August 4, the secretary issued 3 a “Certificate of Insufficiency of Petition” finding “the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution[.]” The secretary directed the petition should not be placed on the November 2026 general election ballot. The secretary also vacated his certification of the original ballot title and set out a new ballot title for use in the event a court ordered the petition be placed on the ballot. On August 6, Howard, Claire Harris, and Eric Bronner timely sued under section 116.200.1 in the Cole County circuit court, seeking reversal of the secretary’s certification decision and a court order directing the petition be placed on the November 2026 general election ballot with the official ballot title the secretary certified in September 2025. Howard, Harris, and Bronner are Missouri citizens, qualified Missouri voters, and each signed the petition. The circuit court upheld the secretary’s insufficiency certification. Howard, Harris, and Bronner appealed. 2 Standard of Review “This Court will affirm a declaratory judgment unless there is no substantial evidence to support it, unless it is against the weight of the evidence, unless it erroneously declares the law, or unless it erroneously applies the law.” Maggard, 733 S.W.3d at 413-14 (internal quotation omitted). “Because the facts are stipulated, this Court’s review is limited to determining whether the circuit court properly declared and applied the law.” Id. at 414 (internal quotation omitted). “Questions of law involving constitutional interpretation are reviewed de novo.” Id. (internal quotation omitted). 2 Because of the general interest and importance of the legal issue involved, this Court, on its own motion, granted discretionary transfer of this case under Rule 83.01 and article V, section 10 of the Missouri Constitution even though section 116.200.3 does not confer exclusive appellate jurisdiction in this Court. Maggard v. State, 733 S.W.3d 411, 416 n.11 (Mo. banc 2026). As a result, this Court need not decide whether any defense asserted by the secretary invokes this Court’s exclusive appellate jurisdiction. 4 Analysis The secretary’s certificate of insufficiency identifies no reason the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution. Instead, his certificate states only: “I find the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution and shall not be placed on the ballot[.]” This does not comply with chapter 116. Section 116.120.1 provides the secretary “shall examine the petition to determine whether it complies with the Constitution of Missouri and with this chapter [116].” Sec. 116.120.1. If the secretary finds the petition insufficient, then section 116.150.2 states the secretary “shall issue a certificate stating the reason for the insufficiency.” Sec. 116.150.2. The secretary failed to comply with section 116.150.2 by failing to identify in his certificate any reason the petition is insufficient under the Missouri Constitution. 3 If this Court held otherwise, the secretary could always declare a petition insufficient under the Missouri Constitution and disregard his statutory duty in section 116.150.2, with any citizen seeking to 3 The secretary attached to his certificate a six-page “opinion” signed by the attorney general. In his certificate, the secretary states: “The grounds for insufficiency are more fully articulated in the attached opinion …, which is incorporated by reference into this certificate.” As this Court explained in Von Glahn, this does not comply with section 116.150.2, which does not authorize the secretary to delegate his statutory duty by attaching and incorporating by reference a document prepared and signed by another person or entity. Sec. 116.150.2; Von Glahn, No. SC101805, __ S.W.3d __, slip op. at 5-6. To the extent the secretary has attempted to raise other arguments, whether by attaching the attorney general’s “opinion” or through subsequent briefing, those arguments have been waived and abandoned. This includes claimed federal constitutional violations, such as a claimed Guarantee Clause violation, which are also outside the scope of the secretary’s authorized statutory review in section 116.120.1. See Von Glahn, No. SC101805, __ S.W.3d __, slip op. at 5-6. Likewise, by failing to include in his certificate any reason for insufficiency related to the filing deadline or signature requirement for initiative petitions, the secretary has waived and abandoned any argument as to noncompliance with either requirement and has conceded the initiative petition was timely filed and contained at least the minimum number of signatures required by article III, section 50 (requiring petitions proposing constitutional amendments be filed not less than six months before the election and be signed by “eight percent of the legal voters in each of two-thirds of the congressional districts in the state”). In fact, the secretary concedes in his answer the petition met the signature requirement in article III, section 50. 5 challenge the secretary’s decision in the expedited statutory timeframe of 10 days from the certification decision left to guess at the reasons for the secretary’s decision. Sec. 116.200.1. As a matter of law, because the secretary failed to state any reason in his certificate for his insufficiency determination, he failed to comply with section 116.150.2 and preserved nothing for this Court’s review. Even if the secretary had included his reasons for finding the petition insufficient in his certificate itself, those reasons—set forth in the secretary’s briefing—do not support the secretary’s insufficiency finding. Almost all the secretary’s unpreserved arguments concern potential constitutional violations that may or will occur only if the voters adopt the proposed amendment. 4 Even assuming these hypothetical constitutional claims were preserved, they are not ripe for review pre-election and are not a basis for finding the petition itself insufficient. See Boeving v. Kander, 496 S.W.3d 498, 511 (Mo. banc 2016) (holding “[c]hallenges to whether the effect of a proposed constitutional amendment (if approved) will or might violate … the Missouri Constitution (or a substantive restriction imposed by the federal constitution) are premature unless and until the amendment has been approved by the voters and taken effect”); Brown v. Carnahan, 370 S.W.3d 637, 645 (Mo. banc 2012) (noting “courts will not sit in judgment on the wisdom or folly of the initiative petition proposal presented, nor will this Court 4 For example, the secretary asserts the petition, if approved, would violate various constitutional guarantees of anti-entrenchment and a republican form of government by preventing future legislatures from proposing amendments to substantial parts of the Missouri Constitution without a supermajority vote. The secretary further asserts the petition, if approved, would cause the Missouri Constitution to run afoul of the United States Constitution, violating article I, section 3 of the Missouri Constitution, which provides: That the people of this state have the inherent, sole and exclusive right to regulate the internal government and police thereof, and to alter and abolish their constitution and form of government whenever they may deem it necessary to their safety and happiness, provided such change be not repugnant to the Constitution of the United States. 6 issue an advisory opinion as to whether a particular proposal, if adopted, would violate a superseding law of this state or the United States Constitution”). Further, at least some of the secretary’s constitutional arguments appear to amount to nonjusticiable political questions to be decided by Congress, not by the secretary or this Court. See, e.g., Pac. States Tel. & Tel. Co. v. Oregon, 223 U.S. 118, 151 (1912) (dismissing the case for lack of jurisdiction because the scope of a republican form of government is a political question for Congress exclusively). The secretary’s review under section 116.120.1 is ministerial only and is limited to review of the petition itself to determine whether it complies with the Missouri Constitution and chapter 116, which does not include a determination of whether the proposed amendment, if approved, will or might lead to constitutional violations. 5 The only proper pre-election claims the secretary raises in his briefing—although not in his certificate—are claims the petition violates article III, section 50 because it has multiple subjects and amends multiple articles. 6 Both of these claims lack merit. 7 5 The secretary essentially argues his certification decision is immune from judicial review because cases concerning “ripeness” do not apply to his statutory authority to review the petition’s sufficiency, so he was free to consider the constitutional validity of the proposed amendment, if it is approved. This Court declines to adopt the secretary’s argument, which is directly contrary to the judicial review the General Assembly authorized in section 116.200 and directly contrary to the plain language of section 116.120.1, setting out the scope of his review. Further, the secretary is no more permitted to rely on a hypothetical issue not ripe for review than any other litigant. A certificate of insufficiency must be based on a defect in the petition, not on any perceived flaws in the proposal made by the petition because the petition may never be approved by the voters, making any perceived flaw hypothetical only. 6 Article III, section 50 provides: “Petitions for constitutional amendments shall not contain more than one amended and revised article of this constitution, or one new article which shall not contain more than one subject and matters properly connected therewith[.]” See also Mo. Const. art. XII, sec. 2(b) (same). The secretary’s briefing conflates the single-subject and single-article challenges, but precedent and the constitutional text show them to be distinct. 7 This opinion assumes, without deciding, the secretary had the right to raise single-subject and single-article violations as grounds for insufficiency under section 116.150.2 even though these 7 On its face, the petition complies with the single-article requirement because it purports to revise only article III by adding six new sections. To the extent the secretary contends multiple constitutional provisions will be amended, he asserts this would occur because the effect of the amendment will be to alter every constitutional provision adopted by initiative petition from January 1, 2010, forward. But, as the secretary acknowledges, any potential impact on other articles will occur only if—and because—the voters approve the petition. Whatever its effect if adopted, the petition does not contain amendments to multiple articles and, therefore, does not violate article III, section 50. See Boeving, 496 S.W.3d at 509 (“By its terms, article III, section 50 is concerned only with what a proposed constitutional amendment ‘contains,’ not with what a proposed constitutional amendment will or might do if the voters approve it.”). The petition also complies with the single-subject requirement because all the petition provisions relate to the single overarching subject of “protecting Missouri citizens’ constitutionally reserved lawmaking power” (i.e., protecting the process and results of the constitutional right to initiative and referenda). Comm. for a Healthy Future, Inc. v. Carnahan, 201 S.W.3d 503, 511 (Mo. banc 2006) (“When reviewing a single subject challenge to an initiative petition, this Court must liberally and non-restrictively construe the petition in such a way that the provisions connected with or incident to the central purpose of the proposal are harmonized and not treated as separate subjects.”). This is evident in the official ballot title the secretary prepared and certified in September 2025, which explained to voters in separate bullet points the proposed changes, each of which relates to the single subject of protecting Missouri citizens’ constitutionally reserved lawmaking power. The secretary now asserts the petition does claimed violations arguably are matters of form under sections 116.050.2(3) and 116.332.4 and should have been raised before the secretary approved the form of the petition in July 2025. 8 not comply with the single-subject requirement because some of the provisions work to defeat instead of protect the citizens’ lawmaking power, but this argument ignores that even a provision hindering citizens’ lawmaking power nonetheless relates to the single subject of citizens’ lawmaking power. In his certificate, the secretary also vacated the official ballot title he, himself, prepared and certified in September 2025 and certified a new official ballot title, claiming the new ballot title “accurately advises voters on what [the petition] would do.” 8 In a document attached to his certificate and titled, “Vacatur of Previous Ballot Title and Certification of New Ballot Title,” the secretary indicated “the previously approved ballot title did not adequately inform the petition’s signers of the dramatic consequences that would follow from this proposed constitutional amendment.” The secretary lacked authority to vacate the ballot title certified in September 2025 and certify a new official ballot title. Section 116.180 requires the secretary to certify the official ballot title within three days after receiving the official summary statement, the approved fiscal note summary, and the fiscal note. Section 116.190.1 authorizes any citizen who wishes to challenge the official ballot title to do so by suing in the Cole County circuit court within 10 days after the secretary certifies the official ballot title. No citizen filed a challenge. Under the plain 8 The current secretary certified the ballot title in September 2025 after receiving the thenattorney general’s approval. To the extent any secretary or attorney general is dissatisfied with approval or certification decisions made by their predecessors in office, they are still bound by those decisions under chapter 116. See Coleman v. Ashcroft, 696 S.W.3d 347, 356 (Mo. banc 2024) (noting the secretary is not “entitled to re-assess matters of form he had already approved”). 9 language of chapter 116’s statutory scheme, the secretary has one opportunity to certify an official ballot title and, in doing so, must comply with a strict statutory deadline. 9 Conclusion This Court reverses the circuit court’s judgment. Pursuant to Rule 84.14, this Court enters judgment ordering the secretary to issue a certificate of sufficiency as to Initiative Petition 2026106 (attaching a copy of this opinion thereto), to place the initiative petition on the November 2026 general election ballot with the original ballot title certified in September 2025, and to take any and all additional steps necessary to place the initiative petition on the ballot at that election before September 8, 2026. No Rule 84.17 motions are permitted. _______________________________________ Ginger K. Gooch, Judge All concur. 9 The General Assembly set out an exception in section 116.115, which requires the secretary to vacate the official ballot title certification within three days of receiving a written notice of withdrawal of the petition. There is no dispute section 116.115 does not apply here. 10
</noframes>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="small-font jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block ">
<div class="disclaimer">
<p class="has-no-top-margin">Some case metadata and case summaries were written with the help of AI, which can produce inaccuracies. You
should read the full case before relying on it for legal research purposes.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sidebar primary-sidebar" id="primary-sidebar">
<aside class="jcard jlead-v2-wrapper -loading" data-directive="j-dynamic-lead" data-property="law" >
<div class="jspinner -double-bounce">
<div class="-crl -crl1 bg-justia-blue"></div>
<div class="-crl -crl2 bg-justia-blue"></div>
</div>
</aside>
<aside class="jcard jlead-v2-wrapper -sidebar -loading" data-directive="j-dynamic-lead" data-lead-id="181">
<div class="jspinner -double-bounce">
<div class="-crl -crl1 bg-justia-blue"></div>
<div class="-crl -crl2 bg-justia-blue"></div>
</div>
</aside>
<aside
data-directive="j-lead"
data-type="cornell"
data-impression="0">
</aside>
<aside id="newsletter-subscription-aside-widget" class="jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block widget no-space" data-gtm-children="Sidebar">
<strong class="heading-4 has-no-top-margin">
Free Daily Summaries in Your Inbox
</strong>
<div class="block-wrapper">
<p class="has-no-bottom-margin hidden">
You're all set! You already receive all suggested Justia Opinion Summary Newsletters. You can explore additional available newsletters <a href="https://connect.justia.com/case-law-summary-newsletters" target="_blank" class="font-w-bold">here</a>.
</p>
<form id="subscribe-aside-form" class="form-v2 skeleton-loader" data-directive="j-validator" data-runs-recaptcha="1" data-gtm-type="submission" data-gtm-label="Suggestions Form" data-gtm-category="Summary Newsletters" data-gtm-value="Submission" >
<p>
Sign up for our free summaries and get the latest delivered directly to you.
</p>
<strong class="heading-5 has-no-top-margin has-margin-bottom-10">
Our Suggestions:
</strong>
<div class="jfld-group jfld-options-group has-no-bottom-margin" id="form-v2-options-group1">
<div
id="suggestion-options-wrapper"
class="options-wrapper has-margin-bottom-10"
data-validations="minOptions1"
data-container="#suggestion-options-container"
data-group="suggestions"></div>
</div>
<div id="suggestion-options-container" class="errors-list"></div>
<div class="jfld-group has-no-bottom-margin">
<div class="floating-label" data-directive="j-floating-label">
<span class="jfld-floating-label flabel" id="subscriptions-aside-email-label">Enter Your Email</span>
<input type="email"
name="aside-email"
id="aside-email"
class="form-text jinput-large jfld-block has-margin-top-15 has-margin-bottom-10"
placeholder="Enter email"
title="Enter email"
aria-labeledby="subscriptions-aside-email-label"
required="true"
data-validations="isEmail"
data-container="#aside-errors">
</div>
<input type="submit"
value="Sign Up"
class="button button-red save-button width-100-v2"
style="min-height:2.8125em">
<div id="aside-errors" class="errors-list"></div>
<div id="aside-g-recaptcha" class="g-recaptcha text-center -display-flex captcha" data-sitekey="6Lc8e9QZAAAAALXCMYspBhWr45nC7vkovxjiIKzP"></div>
</div>
</form>
</div>
<div id="aside-suggestions-errors" class="errors-list"></div>
<div id="practice-areas-div" data-practice="[41,56]"></div>
</aside>
<aside class="jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block webinars-you-might-like widget" data-gtm-children="Sidebar">
<strong class="heading-4 has-no-top-margin">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Sidebar" data-gtm-label="All - Connect Webinars" href="https://connect.justia.com/webinars">Free Webinars for All</a>
</strong>
<div class="block-wrapper" data-directive="j-webinars-list">
<div class="loader-box-with-text has-margin-top-30 has-margin-bottom-30">
<div class="box"></div>
<div class="lines">
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
</div>
</div>
<hr class="hr"/>
<div class="loader-box-with-text has-margin-top-30 has-margin-bottom-30">
<div class="box"></div>
<div class="lines">
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
</div>
</div>
<hr class="hr"/>
<div class="loader-box-with-text has-margin-top-30 has-margin-bottom-30">
<div class="box"></div>
<div class="lines">
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
</div>
</div>
<hr class="hr"/>
<div class="loader-box-with-text has-margin-top-30 has-margin-bottom-30">
<div class="box"></div>
<div class="lines">
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
<span class="line"> </span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</aside>
<aside class="jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block widget no-space" data-gtm-children="Sidebar">
<strong class="heading-4 has-no-top-margin">
Search this Case
</strong>
<div class="block-wrapper">
<ul class="no-margin list-no-styles has-no-padding">
<li><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins&as_sdt=2006" target="_blank" title="Law - Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Google Books">Google Books</a></li>
<li><a href="https://blawgsearch.justia.com/search?query=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Legal Blogs">Legal Blogs </a></li>
</ul>
<ul class="no-margin list-no-styles has-no-padding">
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Google Web">Google Web </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.bing.com/search?q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Bing Web">Bing Web </a></li>
</ul>
<ul class="no-margin no-ul-margin list-no-styles has-no-padding">
<li><a href="https://news.google.com/news/search?q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Google News">Google News </a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Google News Archive">Google News Archive </a></li>
<li><a href="https://news.search.yahoo.com/search?p=Harris+vs.+Hoskins" target="_blank" title="Law - Yahoo! News">Yahoo! News </a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</aside>
<aside id="ask-a-lawyer-widget" class="jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block" data-directive="j-ask-a-lawyer">
<p class="heading-4">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Sidebar" data-gtm-label="All - Ask a Lawyer" href="https://answers.justia.com/">Ask a Lawyer<br/>Get Free Answers</a>
</p>
<div class="block-wrapper small-font">
<form data-gtm-type="submission" data-gtm-label="Ask a Lawyer" data-gtm-category="Widgets" name="ask-a-lawyer-form" method="post" action="https://answers.justia.com/ask" id="homepage-ask" accept-charset="utf-8">
<p>Have a legal question? Get free answers from experienced lawyers!</p>
<button type="submit" name="submit" class="width-100-v2 button button-primary uppercase">
Ask Question
</button>
</form>
</div>
</aside>
<aside class="jcard has-padding-content-block-30 block">
<p class="heading-4">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Sidebar" data-gtm-label="All - Find a Lawyer" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/missouri" id="findalawyerlink">Find a Lawyer</a>
</p>
<div class="block-wrapper">
<form data-gtm-type="submission" data-gtm-label="Find a Lawyer" data-gtm-category="Widgets" name="find-a-lawyer-form" class="jform small-font jform--find-lawyer" action="https://lawyers.justia.com/search" method="get" accept-charset="utf-8">
<div class="jfld-group">
<input type="text" class="jfld-block" name="query" value="" title="Legal Issue or Lawyer Name" placeholder="Legal Issue or Lawyer Name">
</div>
<div class="jfld-group -side-button clearfix">
<input type="text" name="location" value="Missouri" id="lawyer-location" title="City, State" placeholder="City, State">
<input type="submit" value="Search" class="button button-primary search uppercase">
</div>
</form>
<div class="text-center clear-both">
<strong class="heading-6 has-no-bottom-margin"><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Sidebar" data-gtm-label="All - Lawyers - Get Listed Now!" href="https://lawyers.justia.com/lawyer-directory-listings" class="button button-red-ghost">Lawyers - Get Listed Now!</a></strong>
<span class="tiny-font">Get a free directory profile listing</span>
</div>
</div>
</aside>
<aside data-directive="j-find-a-lawyer" data-display-tooltip="true" data-level="300"></aside>
</div>
<div class="notification-banner hidden hide-print">
<a href="#" class="toggle -expanded " data-section="notification-banner-content" data-directive="j-expand" data-cookie="law-sticky-footer-collapsed">
<span class="visuallyhidden">Toggle button</span>
<svg class="jicon -fill-red" role="img" title="Toggle" viewbox="0 0 270 270">
<use xlink:href="/justatic/shared/images/icons/simple-icons-sprite.svg#down"></use>
</svg>
</a>
<div id="notification-banner-content" class="container -expanded has-no-border">
<div class="wrapper">
<p class="text">
<strong>Get free summaries of new <span id="footer-summaries-court-name">Supreme Court of Missouri</span> opinions delivered to your inbox!</strong>
</p>
<div class="form-container">
<form id="subscribe-footer-form" class="form-v2" data-directive="j-validator" data-runs-recaptcha="1" data-gtm-type="submission" data-gtm-label="Sticky Footer Form" data-gtm-category="Summary Newsletters" data-gtm-value="Submission" >
<input type="hidden" name="footer-summaries-identifier" id="footer-summaries-identifier" value="missouri-supreme-court" />
<div class="jform-simple -always-inline">
<div class="jfld-group floating-label" data-directive="j-floating-label">
<span class="jfld-floating-label flabel" id="subscriptions-footer-email-label">Enter Your Email</span>
<input type="email"
name="footer-email"
id="footer-email"
class="form-text jinput-large jfld-block"
placeholder="Enter email"
title="Enter email"
required="true"
data-validations="isEmail"
data-container="#footer-errors">
</div>
<button class="button button-red save-button" type="submit">
<span class="nowrap">Sign Up</span>
</button>
</div>
<div id="footer-errors" class="errors-list text-left has-no-bottom-margin"></div>
<div id="footer-g-recaptcha" class="g-recaptcha text-center -display-flex captcha" data-sitekey="6Lc8e9QZAAAAALXCMYspBhWr45nC7vkovxjiIKzP"></div>
</form>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<script type="text/javascript">
function functionAddAttribute(){
document.getElementById('g-recaptcha-response').setAttribute('aria-hidden', 'true');
document.getElementById('g-recaptcha-response').setAttribute('aria-label', 'do not use');
document.getElementById('g-recaptcha-response').setAttribute('aria-readonly', 'true');
};
window.onload = functionAddAttribute;
</script>
</div>
</div>
<div id="footer" class="-v2 short bg-white color-black">
<div class="wrapper has-no-padding">
<div class="resources font-opensans has-padding-content-block-x2large clearfix">
<div class="section-title">
Justia Legal Resources
</div>
<div class="columns">
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Find a Lawyer" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers">Find a Lawyer</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-01">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-01" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Bankruptcy Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/bankruptcy">Bankruptcy Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/business-law">Business Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Criminal Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/criminal-law">Criminal Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Employment Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/employment-law">Employment Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Estate Planning Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/estate-planning">Estate Planning Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Family Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/family-law">Family Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Personal Injury Lawyers" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers/personal-injury">Personal Injury Lawyers</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Find a Lawyer - More" href="https://www.justia.com/lawyers">More... </a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Individuals" href="https://www.justia.com/individuals/">Individuals</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-02">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-02" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Bankruptcy" href="https://www.justia.com/bankruptcy/">Bankruptcy</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Criminal" href="https://www.justia.com/criminal/">Criminal</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Divorce" href="https://www.justia.com/family/divorce/">Divorce</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="DUI" href="https://www.justia.com/criminal/drunk-driving-dui-dwi/">DUI</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Estate Planning" href="https://www.justia.com/estate-planning/">Estate Planning</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Family Law" href="https://www.justia.com/family/">Family Law</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Personal Injury" href="https://www.justia.com/injury/">Personal Injury</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Individuals - More" href="https://www.justia.com/individuals/">More...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business" href="https://www.justia.com/business/">Business</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-03">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-03" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business Formation" href="https://www.justia.com/business-operations/starting-your-own-business/">Business Formation</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business Operations" href="https://www.justia.com/business-operations/">Business Operations</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Employment" href="https://www.justia.com/employment/">Employment</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Intellectual Property" href="https://www.justia.com/intellectual-property/">Intellectual Property</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="International Trade" href="https://www.justia.com/international-law/international-trade-law/">International Trade</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Real Estate" href="https://www.justia.com/business-operations/commercial-real-estate-the-law/">Real Estate</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Tax Law" href="https://www.justia.com/tax/">Tax Law</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business - More" href="https://www.justia.com/business/">More... </a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Law Schools" href="https://www.justia.com/law-schools/">Law Schools</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-04">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-04" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Dictionary" href="https://dictionary.justia.com/">Dictionary</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Admissions" href="https://www.justia.com/law-students/">Admissions</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Financial Aid" href="https://www.justia.com/law-students/">Financial Aid</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Course Outlines" href="https://www.justia.com/law-schools/outlines/">Course Outlines</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Law Journals" href="https://www.justia.com/law-schools/">Law Journals</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Blogs" href="https://blawgsearch.justia.com/blogs/categories/law-student">Blogs</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Employment" href="https://www.justia.jobs/jobs/summer-associate-legal-internship/">Employment</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Law Schools - More" href="https://www.justia.com/law-schools/">More...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US Federal Law" href="https://law.justia.com/us/">U.S. Federal Law</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-05">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-05" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US Constitution" href="https://law.justia.com/constitution/us/">U.S. Constitution</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US Code" href="https://law.justia.com/codes/us">U.S. Code</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Regulations" href="https://regulations.justia.com/">Regulations</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Supreme Court" href="https://supreme.justia.com/">Supreme Court</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Circuit Courts" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/">Circuit Courts</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="District Courts" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/">District Courts</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Dockets & Filings" href="https://dockets.justia.com/">Dockets & Filings</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US Federal Law - More" href="https://law.justia.com/us/">More...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US State Law" href="https://law.justia.com/us-states/">U.S. State Law</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-06">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-06" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="State Constitutions" href="https://law.justia.com/us-states/">State Constitutions</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="State Codes" href="https://law.justia.com/codes/">State Codes</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="State Case Law" href="https://law.justia.com/cases/">State Case Law</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="California" href="https://law.justia.com/california/">California</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Florida" href="https://law.justia.com/florida/">Florida</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="New York" href="https://law.justia.com/new-york/">New York</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Texas" href="https://law.justia.com/texas/">Texas</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="US State Law - More" href="https://law.justia.com/us-states/">More... </a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Other Databases" href="https://www.justia.com/">Other Databases</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-07">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-07" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Legal Jobs" href="https://www.justia.jobs/">Legal Jobs</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Legal Blogs" href="https://blawgsearch.justia.com/">Legal Blogs</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Business Forms" href="https://contracts.justia.com/">Business Forms</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Product Recalls" href="https://recalls.justia.com/">Product Recalls</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Patents" href="https://patents.justia.com/">Patents</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Trademarks" href="https://trademarks.justia.com/">Trademarks</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Countries" href="https://www.justia.com/countries/">Countries</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Other Databases - More" href="https://www.justia.com/">More...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="footer-block">
<div class="title">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Marketing Solutions" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/">Marketing Solutions</a>
<span class="expand" data-directive="j-expand" data-section="footer-08">
<img src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/images/icons/svgfiles/blue/down.svg" alt="Arrow" />
</span>
</div>
<ul id="footer-08" class="footer-list -collapsed">
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Connect Membership" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/connect/">Justia Connect Membership</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Lawyer Directory" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/lawyer-directory/">Justia Lawyer Directory</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Premium Placements" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/lawyer-directory/#premium-placements">Justia Premium Placements</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Elevate" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/elevate/">Justia Elevate (SEO, Websites)</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Amplify" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/amplify/">Justia Amplify (PPC, GBP)</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Justia Onward Blog" href="https://onward.justia.com/">Justia Onward Blog</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Testimonials" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/testimonials/">Testimonials</a></li>
<li><a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer Resources" data-gtm-label="Marketing Solutions - More" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/">More...</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="bg-justia-blue">
<div class="wrapper">
<div class="copyright">
<span class="site">
<span class="social-media">
<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/justia" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" class="linkedin icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - LinkedIn" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/linkedin.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="LinkedIn">
</a>
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/justia" title="YouTube" target="_blank" class="youtube icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - YouTube" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/youtube.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="YouTube" />
</a>
<a href="https://www.facebook.com/justia" title="Facebook" target="_blank" class="fb icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Facebook" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/facebook.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="Facebook">
</a>
<a href="https://www.instagram.com/justiacom" title="Instagram" target="_blank" class="instagram icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Instagram" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/instagram.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="Instagram">
</a>
<a href="https://www.threads.com/@justiacom" title="Threads" target="_blank" class="threads icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Threads" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/threads.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="Threads">
</a>
<a href="https://bsky.app/profile/justiacom.bsky.social" title="Bluesky" target="_blank" class="bluesky icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Bluesky" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/bluesky.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="Bluesky">
</a>
<a href="https://x.com/justiacom" title="X" target="_blank" class="X icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Twitter" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/twitter.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="X">
</a>
<a href="https://lawyers.justia.com/organization/justia-inc-16302" title="Justia Lawyer Directory" class="justia icon">
<img data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Social Media - Justia Lawyer Directory" src="https://justatic.com/v/1/shared/images/icons/social/justia.svg" width="50" height="50" alt="Justia">
</a>
</span>
<span class="credits">
© 2026 <a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Copyright" href="https://www.justia.com/">Justia</a>
</span>
</span>
<span class="nav">
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Justia Connect" href="https://connect.justia.com/">Justia Connect</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Legal Portal" href="https://www.justia.com/">Legal Portal</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Company" href="https://company.justia.com/">Company</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Help" href="https://support.justia.com/">Help</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Terms of Service" href="https://www.justia.com/terms-of-service/">Terms of Service</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Privacy Policy" href="https://www.justia.com/privacy-policy/">Privacy Policy</a>
<a data-gtm-type="click" data-gtm-category="Navigation" data-gtm-action="Footer" data-gtm-label="Marketing Solutions" class="nowrap" href="https://www.justia.com/marketing/">Marketing Solutions</a>
</span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<script src="https://justatic.com/v/20260818140901/shared/js/core.js"></script>
<script src="https://justatic.com/h/20260818140901/shared/js/law.js"></script>
<script async defer src="https://www.google.com/recaptcha/api.js?onload=recaptchaOnLoad&render=explicit"></script>
<script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||(a.contentWindow&&a.contentWindow.document);if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'a37d7d8f1a10453b',t:'MTc4ODg2NTY1Ng=='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body>
</html>